प्य्रामिद ऎंड sphere

Pyramid and Spheres
Pyramids are polyhedra because they are made up of plane faces. Spheres are not polyhedra because they are curved.

Pyramids
If a line that is fixed at a point, called the vertex, is moved around the perimeter of a polygon, then a pyramid is formed.

The following solid is pyramid.



Pyramids are named after their base. So, the pyramid shown above is an example of a rectangular pyramid.

Some other pyramids are shown below.



A pyramid is said to be right when its vertex is directly above the centre of the base. The cross-sections parallel to the base are the same shape but have different sizes.




The net of the above pyramid consists of:

a rectangular base; and
four triangular faces


Note:
The cross-sections parallel to the base have the same shape as the base but different sizes.
The net of a pyramid consists of a base polygon and a number of triangular faces.
A regular pyramid has a base that is a regular polygon and has faces which are isosceles triangles.

Spheres
If a semicircle is revolved about its diameter, then a sphere is formed.

The following solid is a sphere.



The cross-sections of a sphere are circles. The cross-sections that pass through the centre of the sphere are called great circles whilst other cross-sections are called small circles.



A hemisphere is a half sphere.











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pyramid

The curious synchronicities of the pyramids



The use of the cross and plumb line reveal several mathematical designs that co ordinate with time speed and distance of the motions of the earth, sun and moon against the zodiac thereby implying that the designer of the complex understood astronomical mathematics not considered to have appeared historically until several thousand years later.

Click on thumbnails

The Giza Complex near Cairo in Egypt offers many mysteries to solve and is laid out in a complex of 3 larger pyramids and six small ones amounting to a total of 9



Essentially, the complex is located at 30° north Latitude

Did the architect astronomer design the pyramids to reflect their own latitude?



In essence the reducing circumference of a small circle as you progress from the south equator to the north pole south to north is 240 nautical miles per degree

A degree is equal to 60 nautical miles at the equator and 1 nautical mile = 1 arc minute of time/speed/ distance

Speed of the sun over a great circle is 900 nautical miles per hour and is directly related to the speed of earth rotation

360° x 60 minutes = 21600 Nautical miles earth circumference at the equator this number is directly related to 2160 years in an astrological age because of the symbiotic geometry

The pyramid is at 30 degrees North

30 x 240 = 7200 - 21600 = 14400 nautical miles earth circumference at 30 degrees latitude

Each face of the pyramid is 180 degrees

180 x 4 = 720 take the seen and the unseen as in the squaring of the circle exercise

720 x 2 = 1440 x 10 equals 30 latitude at Giza of a small circle circumference of 14,440 Nautical miles.


Did the architect astronomer show in the pyramids a knowledge of Precession?

Motion of the Precession of the Equinoxes

Multiply by three main pyramids 720 X 3 = 2160 an astrological age

9 pyramids in the complex X 720 x 4 = 25920 years or 12 Zodiac signs

Did the Astronomer Architect measure the motion of the moon?

25920 - 21600 = 4320 x 4 = 17280 years

The moon is retrograde and only travels at 720 miles per hour and is related to the base line of one side of the great pyramid as 720 feet

in 24 hours it travels 17280 miles on a great circle

1 hour for the sun in distance of rotation 900 Sea Miles

1 hour for the moon in distance 720 sea miles

900 - 720 = 180° = or 1 face of the pyramid in degrees

52° x 52° x 76 °= 180° squares the circle and incorporates the Golden Section and perfect spherical geometry relating to

As Above so below.

Did the Astronomer Architect need an instrument capable of measuring degrees as a sidereal observation?

Measuring the path of a celestial object with a cross and plumb line



Are the Dixon Relics the missing Architects Instrument?





Dixon relics assembled

Was the Pyramid a clock?

On the matter of time
The earth spins at 900 nautical miles every hour (Unit of Horus) or 60 minutes of arc

60 ÷ 900 = 0.0666 minutes of time
1 minute of arc at any latitude = 0.0666 minutes of time

24 hours x 60 minutes = 1440 minutes

24 hours x 60 minutes x 60 seconds = 86,400 seconds ÷ 4 = 21600

1440 ÷ 21600 = 0.0666

Earth measurement is the secret of time and that is governed by cycles of life, death and rebirth
These cycles were measured by observing the constellation Draconis in the North as it spins known as Shiva, The Serpent, The Lord of the Dance, the worm, the dragon, the millstone and Reret.
There is much more of course, but it was the 1872 Dixon Relics that allowed Crichton E M Miller to re construct the astronomer, navigator architects instrument to rediscover this curiosity of number and synchronicity in the Giza Complex

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pyramids

Geometry > Solid Geometry > Polyhedra > Pyramids
Recreational Mathematics > Interactive Entries > LiveGraphics3D Applets


Pyramid








A pyramid is a polyhedron with one face (known as the "base") a polygon and all the other faces triangles meeting at a common polygon vertex (known as the "apex"). A right pyramid is a pyramid for which the line joining the centroid of the base and the apex is perpendicular to the base. A regular pyramid is a right pyramid whose base is a regular polygon. An -gonal regular pyramid (denoted ) having equilateral triangles as sides is possible only for , 4, 5. These correspond to the tetrahedron, square pyramid, and pentagonal pyramid, respectively.

A pyramid is self-dual, corresponding to the fact that a pyramid's skeleton (a wheel graph) is a self-dual graph.

An arbitrary pyramid has a single cross-sectional shape whose lengths scale linearly with height. Therefore, the area of a cross section scales quadratically with height, decreasing from at the base () to 0 at the apex (assumed to lie at a height ). The area at a height above the base is therefore given by

(1)

As a result, the volume of a pyramid, regardless of base shape or position of the apex relative to the base, is given by

(2)
(3)
(4)

Note that this formula also holds for the cone, elliptic cone, etc.

The volume of a pyramid whose base is a regular -sided polygon with side is therefore

(5)

Expressing in terms of the circumradius of the base gives

(6)

(Lo Bello 1988, Gearhart and Schulz 1990).

The geometric centroid is the same as for the cone, given by

(7)

The lateral surface area of a pyramid is

(8)

where is the slant height and is the base perimeter.

Joining two pyramids together at their bases gives a dipyramid, also called a bipyramid.


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Indira Gandhi

Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi was the first woman ever elected to lead a democracy. She was the Prime Minister from 1966-77 and then again between 1980-84 till her death at the hands of her own bodyguards. A paradox she may seem for during the time that she served India as a Prime Minister, she was known as a dictator as well as one of the most charismatic leaders of India.

Indira Gandhi was born on November 19, 1917 and was the only child of Jawaharlal and Kamala Nehru. The active participation of both her parents in India's independence struggle of India from the British, Indira Gandhi was drawn to politics at an early age. It was as if politics and politicians always surrounded her.

By the time she was about twelve years old, she headed what came to be known as the Monkey Brigade. The monkey brigade consisted of children who warned the independence movement leaders of their arrest. Being its leader, she delivered speeches while other children actually warned the people who were going to be arrested. The Congress figured that the British would not suspect children of participating in such involvement.

She was soon sent to England for her studies where she joined the Somerville college, Oxford. She also spent time in Switzerland primarily because her mother needed to be there due to her ill health. But her mother passed away in 1936.

In 1938, Indira returned to India and joined the Indian National Congress Party. Soon afterwards in 1942, she married journalist Feroze Gandhi with whom she eventually had two sons-Sanjay and Rajiv Gandhi. Soon after the couple was married, they were sent to prison on charges of subversion by the British. Her one and only imprisonment lasted from September 11, 1942 until May 13, 1943 at the Naini Central Jail in Allahabad.

India won its independence from Britain in 1947. In that same year, Indira's father Jawaharlal Nehru became India's first Prime Minister. Since her mother's death, Indira acted as her father's hostess and confidante and traveled with Nehru. Simultaneously, she was steadily making her way presence felt in the political arena. She began to associate herself with numerous organizations. From 1953-57 she was Chairman of the Central Social Welfare Board. In 1955, she became a member of the Working Committee and Central Election Committee, the Central Parliamentary Board from 1956, and was the President of the All India Youth Congress from 1956 to 1960.

After the death of her father, Jawaharlal Nehru in1964, the then Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri appointed Indira Gandhi as the Minister of Information and Broadcasting. This position was the fourth highest-ranking position in the Cabinet as radio and television were an important source to disseminate information to the largely illiterate population of India. As a minister, She encouraged the making of inexpensive radios and started a family planning program.

But Lal Bahadur Shastri suddenly died of a heart attack in 1966. The contenders for Prime Minister's post could not agree among themselves and therefore felt that Indira Gandhi would be the best for the position as a prime minister. Hence, she became the Prime Minister in 1966 till India held the next elections in 1967. She won that election--- in 1967, she became the first woman ever elected to lead a democracy. In 1971, Gandhi was re-elected by campaigning with the slogan "Garibi Hatao" (Abolish Poverty).

She rode a wave of success in 1971 with India's victory in the Indo-pak war and the launching of the India's first satellite into space. And with the testing of a nuclear device in 1974, she earned the reputation of a tough and shrewd politician among the middle class.

Simultaneously, by 1973, large-scale demonstrations were taking place across Delhi and north India. A large section of the population felt that she was not living up to her promises of "Garibi Hatao". High inflation, rampant corruption and poor standards of living were leading to social unrest.

In an attempt to control population growth, she implemented a voluntary sterilization program. But her adversaries criticized it. She began to face a strong opposition to her administration in general.

By 1975, Indira Gandhi had to face charges of corruption. In June 1975, the High Court of Allahabad found her guilty of using illegal practices during the last election campaign. She was ordered to vacate her seat. There were demands for her resignation.

She responded by declaring a state of emergency on June 25, 1975. During this emergency, the Supreme Court of India overturned the Allahabad High Court's judgment. Through the powers ensured to her through the emergency, she ordered the arrests of the main opposition leaders. In her opinion, she declared an emergency for the good of India. The constitutional rights of the citizens were limited and the press was under strict censorship overnight. Meanwhile, her eldest son, Sanjay Gandhi, ordered the removal of slum dwellings, and in an attempt to curb India's growing population, initiated a highly resented program of forced sterilization.

In early 1977, she thought she had eliminated her opposition and called for fresh elections. Her Congress party lost badly at the polls. She was voted out of power and a newly formed coalition of political parties came to power. Many declared that she was a spent force. But, three years later, she was to return as Prime Minister of India.

Indira Gandhi came to power again as the prime minister in 1980. The same year, however, her son Sanjay was killed in an airplane crash.

In the post-emergency period, as a prime minister Indira Gandhi was preoccupied by efforts to resolve the political problems in the state of Punjab. In her attempt to crush the secessionist movement of Sikh militants, led by Jarnail Singh Bindranwale, she ordered an assault upon the holiest Sikh shrine in Amritsar, the "Golden Temple". It was from here that Bindranwale and his armed supporters waged their campaign. "Operation Bluestar", waged in June 1984, led to the death of Bindranwale, and the Golden Temple was stripped clean of Sikh terrorists. However, the Golden Temple was damaged, and Mrs. Gandhi earned the undying hatred of Sikhs who bitterly resented her action in their sacred space. In November of the same year, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated, at her residence, by two of her own Sikh bodyguards, who claimed to be avenging the insult heaped upon the Sikh nation.

Her death led to sectarian violence across India during which over a 1000 people died of which many were Sikhs.

Indira Gandhi was remarkable for her ambition for personal power, her endurance and political tenacity. Mrs. Gandhi acquired a formidable international reputation as a "statesman", and there is no doubt that she was extraordinarily skilled in politics. On the international front, she insisted on India's independence, gradually loosened ties with the former USSR that were developed in the early 1970s when China seemed menacing. She was proved to be a forceful spokeswoman for the rights of poorer nations. On the domestic front, however, her autocratic methods often clashed with her democratic principles. She had an authoritarian streak and rarely tolerated dissent. In many respects, Indian democracy was irreparably harmed during her rule. Apart from her infamous imposition of the internal emergency, the use of the army to resolve internal disputes greatly increased in her time.

After her death, her second son, Rajiv Gandhi, was sworn in as head of the Congress party and Prime Minister.



Quick Look : : Life Line
1917, November 19: Date of birth
1930: founded the Bal Chakha Sangh and was part of the Vanas Sena---a children's organization which ran messages to help the Congress Party or Freedom Movement during the non-cooperative movement.
-Goes to study in England and joins Somerville college in Oxford.
1938: joins the Indian National Congress
1942: marries Feroze Gandhi
1942: The couple is soon imprisoned at the Naini Central jail, Allahabad on September 11, 1942 on charges of subversion
1943, May 13: released from Naini Central jail
1947-1964: remains with her father as his hostess and close supporter
1947: under Gandhi's instructions, she works in riot-affected areas of Delhi.
1953-57: serves as the Chairman of the Central Social Welfare Board
1955: becomes a member of the working Committee and Central Election Committee
1956: member of Central Parliamentary Board
1956-60: Becomes the President of the All India Youth congress
1960: Feroze Gandhi, her husband, dies
1964: Nehru, her father, dies
1964: she is elected to the parliament in his place
1964-66: serves as the Minister of Information and Broadcasting
1966: becomes the Prime Minister after the death of Lal Bahadur Shastri
1971: calls for a general election and wins by an enormous margin
-declares war with Pakistan over Bangladesh
-sends India's first satellite into space
-her period in office is marked by severe economic troubles.
1973: there are demonstrations across the country due to high inflation, poor state of the economy, rampant corruption and the poor standards of living.
1974: tests the explosion of a nuclear device.
1975, June: the High Court of Allahabad found her guilty of illegal practices during the last election campaign and ordered her to vacate her seat.
-She responded by declaring a state of emergency.
1977: Indira Gandhi calls for early elections but loses
-she faces charges of corruption and authoritarianism
-is expelled from parliament and is imprisoned.
1978: is released from prison.
-Resigns from the congress party
-Becomes leader of the Indian National Congress
-Wins a seat through a by-election
1980: is re-elected as the Prime Minister
-Sanjay Gandhi, her youngest son, dies in a plane crash
1984, June: in an attempt to crush the secessionist movement in Punjab, she launched "Operation Blue Star". She sent troops into the "Golden Temple" of Amritsar. This led to the death of Jarnail Singh Bindrawale, the leader of the secessionist movement of Sikh militants.

Books on Indira Gandhi:
Indira Gandhi: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi
-by Katherine Frank
Indira Gandhi, the 'Emergency', and Indian Democracy
- by P. N. Dhar
Indira Gandhi, Speeches and Writings.
- by Indira Gandhi
The assassination of Indira Gandhi
- by Ritu Sarin
Indira Gandhi : Letters to an American Friend, 1950-1984
- by Dorothy Norman
Indira Gandhi and Foreign Policy Making : The Bangladesh Crisis
- by Narottam Gaan
Indira : a biography of Prime Minister Gandhi
- by Krishan Bhatia
Impact of Indira Gandhi on Indian Political System
- by Dhrub Dumar
Indira Gandhi : Daughter of India (Lerner Biographies)
- by Carol Dommermuth-Costa

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रामाक्रिशाना paramhans

Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836-1886)
Bhagavan Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was born on February 18, 1836. He was a Bengali religious leader. He was a devotee of the Goddess Kali. As a young man he became a temple priest. He immersed himself in intense meditation and other spiritual practices. He became a teacher of Advaita Vedanta Hinduism. He placed “Spiritual Religion” above “Blind Ritualism”.

In his thirst for the divine, Ramakrishna followed different religious paths including various branches of Hinduism. But finally he reached to conclusion that all religions lead to the same goal. Ramakrishna said that his experience of nirvikalpa Samadhi convinced him that the Gods of various religions are merely so many interpretations of the Absolute and that the ultimate reality could never be expressed in human terms. Through many of his Sikh devotees he learned of their faith and its great founders. This exposure to Sikhism and Buddhism further confirmed his experience of the Universality of spiritual truth.

Ramakrishna also believed that his experience of nirvikalpa Samadhi gave him an understanding of the two sides of maya (illusion) which are avidyamaya and vidyamaya. Avidyamaya represents the dark forces of creation which keep the world system on lower planes of consciousness. Vidyamaya, on the other hand, represents the higher forces of creation which elevate human beings to the higher planes of consciousness. With the help of vidyamaya, the devotees can achieve the ultimate goal of becoming mayatita, which means free from maya.

He revitalized Hinduism which had been fraught with excessive ritualism and superstition in the nineteenth century and helped it better respond to challenges from Islam, Christianity, and the dawn of the modern era. The four key concepts in Ramakrishna’s teachings were the following:

The oneness of existence
The divinity of human beings
The unity of God
The harmony of religions

The Ramakrishna Mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda, but it was his spiritual master, Ramakrishna, who directly provided the main impetus for this movement. Although the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj preceded the Ramakrishna Mission, their influence on a larger level was limited. The life and teachings of this Man of God have had a tremendous impact on the world at large as well as on the people of India.

Among his many other noteworthy characteristics were his universality and child-like purity, intense sincerity, his vast knowledge of thins spiritual and human, and his extraordinary power to transform lives.

His whole life was literally an uninterrupted contemplation of God. He reached a depth of God-consciousness that transcends all time and place and has a universal appeal. Through his Godly life Sri Ramakrishna proved that the revelation of God takes place at all times and that realizing God is not the monopoly of any particular age, or people. In him deepest spirituality and broadest catholicity stood side by side. In the present day world, threatened by nuclear war and torn by religious intolerance, Ramakrishna’s message of harmony gives us hope and shows the right way.

Sayings of Sri Ramakrishna:



I tell you the truth: there is nothing wrong in your being in the world. But you must direct your mind towards God.

There is one whom you may call your own, and that is God.

Money can fetch you bread alone. Do not consider it as your sole end and aim.

You see many stars in the sky at night, but not when the sun rises. Can you therefore say that there are no stars in the heavens during the day? O, man because you cannot find God in the days of your ignorance, say not there is no God.

Seekest thou God? Then seek him in man! His Divinity is manifest more in man than in any other object. Man is greatest manifestation of God.

Women naturally whether good or not, whether chaste or unchaste, should always be regarded as images of the Blissful Divine Mother.

The ego that asserts, ‘I am the servant of God’ is the characteristic of the true devotee. It is the ego of vidya (knowledge), and is called the ‘ripe’ ego.

Let me be condemned to be born over and over again, even in the form of a dog, if so I can be of help to a single soul.

To become great, one must be humble. The tree laden with fruit always bends low. So if you wish to be great, be lowly and meek.

If you say, ‘I am a sinner’, eternally, you will remain a sinner to all eternity. You ought to rather repeat, ‘I am not bound. I am not bound. Who can bind me? I am the son of God, the King of Kings’.


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अटल बिहारी .....

Atal Bihari Vajpayee
Atal Bihari Vajpayee's political career stretches over 50 years. Over the course of his career, he was elected to the Lok Sabha (House of the People) nine times and twice to the Raj Sabha (House of the Lords). And he twice served as the Prime Minister of India. The first time he served as a Prime Minister, it was for a short time between May 16 and May 31, 1996. The BJP had won the largest number of parliamentary seats in 1996 elections but they failed to form a coalition and therefore, Vajpayee had to resign. However, he became the Prime Minister again on October 13, 1999 when the Bharitiya Janata Party (BJP) won the most number of seats in the parliament and he headed a coalition government---the National Democratic Alliance (NDA).

He began to be seriously interested in politics from his college days when he was a student of Law and Political Science. He then went on to participate in the Quit India Movement and a career in journalism. But his career in journalism lasted only till 1951 when he joined the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS).

The BJS was the precursor of the BJP. In 1957, he was elected to the second Lok Sabha. Over the decades, he was an active member of the Lok Sabha and the Raj Sabha. He also became the leader of the BJS and eventually the BJP too. In 1994, he was given Pt. Govind Ballabh Pant Award for the Best Parliamentarian.

Over the course of his political career, he managed to establish his reputation as a man of the masses, a poet and an inspiring orator. After becoming the Prime Minister, he seemed to have softened BJP's reputation of being anti-muslim. He advocates the development of India as a nuclear power as he supported nuclear tests in Pokran in 1998. He pressed for the continuation of free market reforms and encouraged women's rights.

In 1994, he was conferred the highest civilian award---the Padma Bhushan award.

Some of the titles of the books that he published are:

Lok Sabha Mein Atalji (a collection of speeches)
Mrityu Ya Hatya, Amar Balidan, Kaidi Kavirai Ki Kundalian (a collection of poems written in jail during Emergency)
New Dimensions of India's Foreign Policy (a collection of speeches delivered as External Affairs Minister during 1977-79)
Jana Sangh Aur Musalman
Three Decades in Parliament (Speeches in three volumes)
Amar Aag Hai(a collection of poems) 1994
Meri Ekyavan Kavitayen
Four Decades in Parliament (English)-4 Volumes of Speeches in Parliament, 1957-95

लाल बहादुर sastri

Lal Bahadur Shastri (1904-1966)
Lal Bahadur Shastri was born in Moghalsarai, which is also spelt as Mughalsarai, on October 2, 1904. His parents were Sharada Prasad and Ramdulari Devi. Though his parents were Srivatsavas, Shastri dropped his caste identity in his early years. His father died when he was only a year old. His mother with the help of her father took care of the children. Lal Bahadur acquired virtues like boldness, love of adventure, patience, self-control, courtesy, and selflessness in his childhood.

His abandoned his studies to take part in the non-cooperation movement started by Gandhi in 1921. He was given the title ‘Shastri’ at Kashi Vidya Peetha in 1926. During his four years’ stay there, he was very much influenced by the lectures of Dr. Bhagawandas on philosophy. In his later life, Shastri displayed poise in the midst of conflict and confusion which he learnt from his teacher, Bhagawandas.

After coming out from Kashi Vidya Peeth, he became the life-member of The Servants of the People Society which was started by Lala Lajpat Rai in 1921. The aim of the society was to train youth who were prepared to dedicate their lives to the service of the country. Shastri earned the love and affection of Lajpat Rai by his earnestness and hard work. Later he became the President of the society. In 1927, Shastri married Lalitha Devi who was from Mirzalyur.

Lal Bahadur Shastri took a leading role in ‘Salt Satyagraha’ which was intensified by 1930. He also advised people not to pay land revenue and taxes to the British government. He was sent to prison for two and half years for doing so. From this time onwards prison became his second home. He was sent to prison seven times and was forced to spend nine long years in various prisons on different occasions.

Going to prison became a blessing in disguise for him. He spent time reading number of books. He became familiar with the works of western philosophers, revolutionaries, and social reformers. He translated the autobiography of Madam Curie, a French scientist who discovered Radium, into Hindi. He was a ideal prisoner. The greatness of Shastri was that he maintained his self-respect even in prison.

After Independence, he became the Minister of police in the ministry of Govind Vallabh Panth. In 1951, he was appointed as the General Secretary of Lok Sabha before regaining a ministerial post as Railways Minister. He resigned following a rail disaster near Ariyalur. He returned to the Cabinet following the general elections, first as Minister of Transport, and then in 1961, he became the Home Minister.

Nehru died in office on May 27, 1964, and left something of a vaccum.Though eclipsed by such stalwarts of the congress party as Kamaraj, and Morarji Desai, the Finance Minister in Nehru’s government, Shastri emerged as the consensus candidate in the midst of the party warfare. The ruling congress party Shastri unanimously as its leader. He became the Prime Minister on June 9, 1964. He became the Prime Minister of India at a very crucial time in Indian history.

The first problem he had to face after becoming the P.M was the one caused by Pakistan. After the Chinese aggression, when India’s confidence in her strength had been shaken, Pakistan was creating trouble along the borders. But Shastriji would not yield to the wickedness of Pakistan. He first tried to earn the good-will and support from the other nations for India. He attended a meeting of non-aligned nations and explained India’s position. Pakistan was awaiting to swallow Kashmir into its territory. She pushed her forces across the eastern border into the Rann of Kuch in Gujarat in 1965. Shastri faced the problem with great tact. But later there was a large scale invasion of the territory by Pakistani soldiers which lead to the break out of war along the cease-fire line on the Kashmir border. Addressing the Nation on 13th August 1965, Shastri referred to Pakistan threats and said, “Force will be met with force”.

Some big Nations feared that if India won a total victory over Pakistan, it would lower their prestige. The Security Council of the United Nations Organization called on India and Pakistan to stop fighting. On the invitation of Kosygin, the Premier of Soviet Russia, Shastri and Ayub Khan met in Tashkent on January 4, 1966. Shastri wished to give one more chance to Pakistan to live in peace and friendship with India. So he signed the treaty of friendship.

Shastriji had suffered heart attacks twice before and during the period of Pakistan war and the following days his body had to bear a very heavy strain. He signed the Joint Declaration on 10th January 1966. He died the same night. Gone was the war hero and the messenger of peace, gone was the great statesman who restored to India her honor and self-respect in the assembly of nations. A tiny, tidy figure. A soul that had lived in perfect purity of thought, word, and deed. Such was this man who had lived in our midst. He belongs to the race of heroes of India.

He was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna and a memorial was built for him in Delhi. The slogan, ‘Jai jawan, Jai kisan’ is attributed to Shastri. Lal Bahadur Shastri was a star of great brightness in the history of India.

राजीव gandhi

Rajiv Gandhi
Rajiv Gandhi entered politics only after the death of his brother, Sanjay Gandhi, in 1980. Rajiv Gandhi had not shown much interest in politics till then. He attended college at Cambridge, England; married an Italian, Sonia Gandhi; and worked as a pilot for the Indian Airlines.

Rajiv's mother, Indira Gandhi, was active in India's national politics as she had by then served as the Prime Minister of India. Rajiv Gandhi's brother was an aide to their mother in politics. So when Sanjay Gandhi died, it is said that Indira Gandhi convinced Rajiv Gandhi to enter politics. But Rajiv Gandhi was not new to politics as he was born into a family of politicians. His grandfather, Nehru, was the first Prime Minister of India. His mother, father and brother too were politically very active.

Rajiv Gandhi won his first parliamentary elections to the Lok Sabha in 1981. At that time, Indira Gandhi was re-elected as the Prime Minister and Rajiv Gandhi became her unofficial political advisor. But in 1984, Indira Gandhi's bodyguards assassinated her and Rajiv Gandhi took over as the head of the Congress party and was sworn in as the Prime Minister.

His government encouraged foreign investment, and industry boomed with the loosening of business controls. He sought to increase Indian investments in modern technology. He removed many restrictions on imports and encouraged foreign investment. His critics claim that he was indecisive as he changed his cabinet members frequently. He fired his mother's aides and instead appointed his friends and technocrats. In 1987, he committed the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Sri Lanka in an endeavor to help the government there eradicate militants agitating for a separate Tamil homeland. Though one of the campaign promises of the Congress party was to eliminate corruption in politics, Rajiv Gandhi's tenure as Prime Minister was marred by allegations of corruption. He was accused of receiving "kick-backs" from a Swedish company manufacturing Bofors machine-guns.

In elections in November 1989 Gandhi won his seat, but the Congress Party lost its majority and he resigned as prime minister. He and his party's implications in corruption scandals decreased their credibility as a strong party.

Rajiv Gandhi began to campaign again in 1991. It was while he was campaigning in Tamil Nadu in south India that a Tamil sucide bomber took his life. They said that it was revenge for intervening in Sri Lanka's politics.

In 1998, 26 members of a separatist guerrilla group known as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam were convicted of Gandhi's murder and sentenced to death.

And in 1999, Rajiv Gandhi was posthumously charged with participating in a kickback scheme in a Bofors arms deal.



Quick Look : : Life Line
1944: born in Mumbai
1980: his brother Sanjay dies in a plane crash.
1981: His mother, Indira Gandhi convinces him to join politics.
- he is elected into the parliament
1984: Her bodyguards assassinate Indira Gandhi
- Rajiv Gandhi leads the congress party to a sweeping victory and succeeds his mother as Prime Minister.
1987: sends the Indian Peace Keeping Force to Sri Lanka mediate an end to Tamil-Sinhalese violence there.
1988: Allegations of corruption in the Bofors scam diminish his popularity.
1989: the congress party loses its parliamentary majority and Rajiv Gandhi resigns as Prime Minister
1991: while campaigning for the elections, he is assassinated by a Tamil militant suicide bomber in Tamil Nadu. They said it was their revenge for india's intervention in the civil war in Sri Lanka.
1998: 26 members of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (a separatist guerilla group) are convicted of Rajiv Gandhi's murder and are sentenced to death
1999: Rajiv Gandhi is posthumously charged with participating in a kickback scheme in a Bofors arms deal.

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पी................ush

A history of Pi

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A chronology of Pi History Topics Index


Version for printing
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A little known verse of the Bible reads

And he made a molten sea, ten cubits from the one brim to the other: it was round all about, and his height was five cubits: and a line of thirty cubits did compass it about. (I Kings 7, 23)

The same verse can be found in II Chronicles 4, 2. It occurs in a list of specifications for the great temple of Solomon, built around 950 BC and its interest here is that it gives π = 3. Not a very accurate value of course and not even very accurate in its day, for the Egyptian and Mesopotamian values of 25/8 = 3.125 and √10 = 3.162 have been traced to much earlier dates: though in defence of Solomon's craftsmen it should be noted that the item being described seems to have been a very large brass casting, where a high degree of geometrical precision is neither possible nor necessary. There are some interpretations of this which lead to a much better value.

The fact that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is constant has been known for so long that it is quite untraceable. The earliest values of π including the 'Biblical' value of 3, were almost certainly found by measurement. In the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus, which is dated about 1650 BC, there is good evidence for 4 (8/9)2 = 3.16 as a value for π.

The first theoretical calculation seems to have been carried out by Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 BC). He obtained the approximation

223/71 < π < 22/7.

Before giving an indication of his proof, notice that very considerable sophistication involved in the use of inequalities here. Archimedes knew, what so many people to this day do not, that π does not equal 22/7, and made no claim to have discovered the exact value. If we take his best estimate as the average of his two bounds we obtain 3.1418, an error of about 0.0002.

Here is Archimedes' argument.

Consider a circle of radius 1, in which we inscribe a regular polygon of 3 2n-1 sides, with semiperimeter bn, and superscribe a regular polygon of 3 2n-1 sides, with semiperimeter an.


The diagram for the case n = 2 is on the right.

The effect of this procedure is to define an increasing sequence

b1 , b2 , b3 , ...

and a decreasing sequence

a1 , a2 , a3 , ...

such that both sequences have limit π.

Using trigonometrical notation, we see that the two semiperimeters are given by

an = K tan(π/K), bn = K sin(π/K),

where K = 3 2n-1. Equally, we have

an+1 = 2K tan(π/2K), bn+1 = 2K sin(π/2K),

and it is not a difficult exercise in trigonometry to show that

(1/an + 1/bn) = 2/an+1 . . . (1)

an+1bn = (bn+1)2 . . . (2)

Archimedes, starting from a1 = 3 tan(π/3) = 3√3 and b1 = 3 sin(π/3) = 3√3/2, calculated a2 using (1), then b2 using (2), then a3 using (1), then b3 using (2), and so on until he had calculated a6 and b6. His conclusion was that

b6 < π < a6 .

It is important to realise that the use of trigonometry here is unhistorical: Archimedes did not have the advantage of an algebraic and trigonometrical notation and had to derive (1) and (2) by purely geometrical means. Moreover he did not even have the advantage of our decimal notation for numbers, so that the calculation of a6 and b6 from (1) and (2) was by no means a trivial task. So it was a pretty stupendous feat both of imagination and of calculation and the wonder is not that he stopped with polygons of 96 sides, but that he went so far.

For of course there is no reason in principle why one should not go on. Various people did, including:


Ptolemy (c. 150 AD) 3.1416

Zu Chongzhi (430-501 AD) 355/113

al-Khwarizmi (c. 800 ) 3.1416

al-Kashi (c. 1430) 14 places

Viète (1540-1603) 9 places

Roomen (1561-1615) 17 places

Van Ceulen (c. 1600) 35 places



Except for Zu Chongzhi, about whom next to nothing is known and who is very unlikely to have known about Archimedes' work, there was no theoretical progress involved in these improvements, only greater stamina in calculation. Notice how the lead, in this as in all scientific matters, passed from Europe to the East for the millennium 400 to 1400 AD.

Al-Khwarizmi lived in Baghdad, and incidentally gave his name to 'algorithm', while the words al jabr in the title of one of his books gave us the word 'algebra'. Al-Kashi lived still further east, in Samarkand, while Zu Chongzhi, one need hardly add, lived in China.

The European Renaissance brought about in due course a whole new mathematical world. Among the first effects of this reawakening was the emergence of mathematical formulae for π. One of the earliest was that of Wallis (1616-1703)

2/π = (1.3.3.5.5.7. ...)/(2.2.4.4.6.6. ...)

and one of the best-known is

π/4 = 1 - 1/3 + 1/5 - 1/7 + ....

This formula is sometimes attributed to Leibniz (1646-1716) but is seems to have been first discovered by James Gregory (1638- 1675).

These are both dramatic and astonishing formulae, for the expressions on the right are completely arithmetical in character, while π arises in the first instance from geometry. They show the surprising results that infinite processes can achieve and point the way to the wonderful richness of modern mathematics.

From the point of view of the calculation of π, however, neither is of any use at all. In Gregory's series, for example, to get 4 decimal places correct we require the error to be less than 0.00005 = 1/20000, and so we need about 10000 terms of the series. However, Gregory also showed the more general result

tan-1 x = x - x3/3 + x5/5 - ... (-1 x 1) . . . (3)

from which the first series results if we put x = 1. So using the fact that

tan-1(1/√3) = π/6 we get

π/6 = (1/√3)(1 - 1/(3.3) + 1/(5.3.3) - 1/(7.3.3.3) + ...

which converges much more quickly. The 10th term is 1/(19 39√3), which is less than 0.00005, and so we have at least 4 places correct after just 9 terms.

An even better idea is to take the formula

π/4 = tan-1(1/2) + tan-1(1/3) . . . (4)

and then calculate the two series obtained by putting first 1/2 and the 1/3 into (3).

Clearly we shall get very rapid convergence indeed if we can find a formula something like

π/4 = tan-1(1/a) + tan-1(1/b)

with a and b large. In 1706 Machin found such a formula:

π/4 = 4 tan-1(1/5) - tan-1(1/239) . . . (5)

Actually this is not at all hard to prove, if you know how to prove (4) then there is no real extra difficulty about (5), except that the arithmetic is worse. Thinking it up in the first place is, of course, quite another matter.

With a formula like this available the only difficulty in computing π is the sheer boredom of continuing the calculation. Needless to say, a few people were silly enough to devote vast amounts of time and effort to this tedious and wholly useless pursuit. One of them, an Englishman named Shanks, used Machin's formula to calculate π to 707 places, publishing the results of many years of labour in 1873. Shanks has achieved immortality for a very curious reason which we shall explain in a moment.
Here is a summary of how the improvement went:

1699: Sharp used Gregory's result to get 71 correct digits

1701: Machin used an improvement to get 100 digits and the following used his methods:

1719: de Lagny found 112 correct digits

1789: Vega got 126 places and in 1794 got 136

1841: Rutherford calculated 152 digits and in 1853 got 440

1873: Shanks calculated 707 places of which 527 were correct



A more detailed Chronology is available.

Shanks knew that π was irrational since this had been proved in 1761 by Lambert. Shortly after Shanks' calculation it was shown by Lindemann that π is transcendental, that is, π is not the solution of any polynomial equation with integer coefficients. In fact this result of Lindemann showed that 'squaring the circle' is impossible. The transcendentality of π implies that there is no ruler and compass construction to construct a square equal in area to a given circle.

Very soon after Shanks' calculation a curious statistical freak was noticed by De Morgan, who found that in the last of 707 digits there was a suspicious shortage of 7's. He mentions this in his Budget of Paradoxes of 1872 and a curiosity it remained until 1945 when Ferguson discovered that Shanks had made an error in the 528th place, after which all his digits were wrong. In 1949 a computer was used to calculate π to 2000 places. In this and all subsequent computer expansions the number of 7's does not differ significantly from its expectation, and indeed the sequence of digits has so far passed all statistical tests for randomness.

You can see 2000 places of π.

We should say a little of how the notation π arose. Oughtred in 1647 used the symbol d/π for the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumference. David Gregory (1697) used π/r for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its radius. The first to use π with its present meaning was an Welsh mathematician William Jones in 1706 when he states "3.14159 andc. = π". Euler adopted the symbol in 1737 and it quickly became a standard notation.

We conclude with one further statistical curiosity about the calculation of π, namely Buffon's needle experiment. If we have a uniform grid of parallel lines, unit distance apart and if we drop a needle of length k < 1 on the grid, the probability that the needle falls across a line is 2k/π. Various people have tried to calculate π by throwing needles. The most remarkable result was that of Lazzerini (1901), who made 34080 tosses and got

π = 355/113 = 3.1415929

which, incidentally, is the value found by Zu Chongzhi. This outcome is suspiciously good, and the game is given away by the strange number 34080 of tosses. Kendall and Moran comment that a good value can be obtained by stopping the experiment at an optimal moment. If you set in advance how many throws there are to be then this is a very inaccurate way of computing π. Kendall and Moran comment that you would do better to cut out a large circle of wood and use a tape measure to find its circumference and diameter.

Still on the theme of phoney experiments, Gridgeman, in a paper which pours scorn on Lazzerini and others, created some amusement by using a needle of carefully chosen length k = 0.7857, throwing it twice, and hitting a line once. His estimate for π was thus given by

2 0.7857 / π = 1/2

from which he got the highly creditable value of π = 3.1428. He was not being serious!

It is almost unbelievable that a definition of π was used, at least as an excuse, for a racial attack on the eminent mathematician Edmund Landau in 1934. Landau had defined π in this textbook published in Göttingen in that year by the, now fairly usual, method of saying that π/2 is the value of x between 1 and 2 for which cos x vanishes. This unleashed an academic dispute which was to end in Landau's dismissal from his chair at Göttingen. Bieberbach, an eminent number theorist who disgraced himself by his racist views, explains the reasons for Landau's dismissal:-

Thus the valiant rejection by the Göttingen student body which a great mathematician, Edmund Landau, has experienced is due in the final analysis to the fact that the un-German style of this man in his research and teaching is unbearable to German feelings. A people who have perceived how members of another race are working to impose ideas foreign to its own must refuse teachers of an alien culture.

G H Hardy replied immediately to Bieberbach in a published note about the consequences of this un-German definition of π

There are many of us, many Englishmen and many Germans, who said things during the War which we scarcely meant and are sorry to remember now. Anxiety for one's own position, dread of falling behind the rising torrent of folly, determination at all cost not to be outdone, may be natural if not particularly heroic excuses. Professor Bieberbach's reputation excludes such explanations of his utterances, and I find myself driven to the more uncharitable conclusion that he really believes them true.

Not only in Germany did π present problems. In the USA the value of π gave rise to heated political debate. In the State of Indiana in 1897 the House of Representatives unanimously passed a Bill introducing a new mathematical truth.

Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana: It has been found that a circular area is to the square on a line equal to the quadrant of the circumference, as the area of an equilateral rectangle is to the square of one side.
(Section I, House Bill No. 246, 1897)

The Senate of Indiana showed a little more sense and postponed indefinitely the adoption of the Act!

Open questions about the number π




Does each of the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 each occur infinitely often in π?

Brouwer's question: In the decimal expansion of π, is there a place where a thousand consecutive digits are all zero?

Is π simply normal to base 10? That is does every digit appear equally often in its decimal expansion in an asymptotic sense?

Is π normal to base 10? That is does every block of digits of a given length appear equally often in its decimal expansion in an asymptotic sense?

Is π normal ? That is does every block of digits of a given length appear equally often in the expansion in every base in an asymptotic sense? The concept was introduced by Borel in 1909.

Another normal question! We know that π is not rational so there is no point from which the digits will repeat. However, if π is normal then the first million digits 314159265358979... will occur from some point. Even if π is not normal this might hold! Does it? If so from what point? Note: Up to 200 million the longest to appear is 31415926 and this appears twice.

As a postscript, here is a mnemonic for the decimal expansion of π. Each successive digit is the number of letters in the corresponding word.

How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics. All of thy geometry, Herr Planck, is fairly hard...:

3.14159265358979323846264...


You can see more about the history of π in the History topic: Squaring the circle and you can see a Chronology of how calculations of π have developed over the years.

www.piyushdadriwalamaths.co.in

zero

A history of Zero

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Ancient Indian Mathematics index History Topics Index


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One of the commonest questions which the readers of this archive ask is: Who discovered zero? Why then have we not written an article on zero as one of the first in the archive? The reason is basically because of the difficulty of answering the question in a satisfactory form. If someone had come up with the concept of zero which everyone then saw as a brilliant innovation to enter mathematics from that time on, the question would have a satisfactory answer even if we did not know which genius invented it. The historical record, however, shows quite a different path towards the concept. Zero makes shadowy appearances only to vanish again almost as if mathematicians were searching for it yet did not recognise its fundamental significance even when they saw it.

The first thing to say about zero is that there are two uses of zero which are both extremely important but are somewhat different. One use is as an empty place indicator in our place-value number system. Hence in a number like 2106 the zero is used so that the positions of the 2 and 1 are correct. Clearly 216 means something quite different. The second use of zero is as a number itself in the form we use it as 0. There are also different aspects of zero within these two uses, namely the concept, the notation, and the name. (Our name "zero" derives ultimately from the Arabic sifr which also gives us the word "cipher".)

Neither of the above uses has an easily described history. It just did not happen that someone invented the ideas, and then everyone started to use them. Also it is fair to say that the number zero is far from an intuitive concept. Mathematical problems started as 'real' problems rather than abstract problems. Numbers in early historical times were thought of much more concretely than the abstract concepts which are our numbers today. There are giant mental leaps from 5 horses to 5 "things" and then to the abstract idea of "five". If ancient peoples solved a problem about how many horses a farmer needed then the problem was not going to have 0 or -23 as an answer.

One might think that once a place-value number system came into existence then the 0 as an empty place indicator is a necessary idea, yet the Babylonians had a place-value number system without this feature for over 1000 years. Moreover there is absolutely no evidence that the Babylonians felt that there was any problem with the ambiguity which existed. Remarkably, original texts survive from the era of Babylonian mathematics. The Babylonians wrote on tablets of unbaked clay, using cuneiform writing. The symbols were pressed into soft clay tablets with the slanted edge of a stylus and so had a wedge-shaped appearance (and hence the name cuneiform). Many tablets from around 1700 BC survive and we can read the original texts. Of course their notation for numbers was quite different from ours (and not based on 10 but on 60) but to translate into our notation they would not distinguish between 2106 and 216 (the context would have to show which was intended). It was not until around 400 BC that the Babylonians put two wedge symbols into the place where we would put zero to indicate which was meant, 216 or 21 '' 6.

The two wedges were not the only notation used, however, and on a tablet found at Kish, an ancient Mesopotamian city located east of Babylon in what is today south-central Iraq, a different notation is used. This tablet, thought to date from around 700 BC, uses three hooks to denote an empty place in the positional notation. Other tablets dated from around the same time use a single hook for an empty place. There is one common feature to this use of different marks to denote an empty position. This is the fact that it never occured at the end of the digits but always between two digits. So although we find 21 '' 6 we never find 216 ''. One has to assume that the older feeling that the context was sufficient to indicate which was intended still applied in these cases.

If this reference to context appears silly then it is worth noting that we still use context to interpret numbers today. If I take a bus to a nearby town and ask what the fare is then I know that the answer "It's three fifty" means three pounds fifty pence. Yet if the same answer is given to the question about the cost of a flight from Edinburgh to New York then I know that three hundred and fifty pounds is what is intended.

We can see from this that the early use of zero to denote an empty place is not really the use of zero as a number at all, merely the use of some type of punctuation mark so that the numbers had the correct interpretation.

Now the ancient Greeks began their contributions to mathematics around the time that zero as an empty place indicator was coming into use in Babylonian mathematics. The Greeks however did not adopt a positional number system. It is worth thinking just how significant this fact is. How could the brilliant mathematical advances of the Greeks not see them adopt a number system with all the advantages that the Babylonian place-value system possessed? The real answer to this question is more subtle than the simple answer that we are about to give, but basically the Greek mathematical achievements were based on geometry. Although Euclid's Elements contains a book on number theory, it is based on geometry. In other words Greek mathematicians did not need to name their numbers since they worked with numbers as lengths of lines. Numbers which required to be named for records were used by merchants, not mathematicians, and hence no clever notation was needed.

Now there were exceptions to what we have just stated. The exceptions were the mathematicians who were involved in recording astronomical data. Here we find the first use of the symbol which we recognise today as the notation for zero, for Greek astronomers began to use the symbol O. There are many theories why this particular notation was used. Some historians favour the explanation that it is omicron, the first letter of the Greek word for nothing namely "ouden". Neugebauer, however, dismisses this explanation since the Greeks already used omicron as a number - it represented 70 (the Greek number system was based on their alphabet). Other explanations offered include the fact that it stands for "obol", a coin of almost no value, and that it arises when counters were used for counting on a sand board. The suggestion here is that when a counter was removed to leave an empty column it left a depression in the sand which looked like O.

Ptolemy in the Almagest written around 130 AD uses the Babylonian sexagesimal system together with the empty place holder O. By this time Ptolemy is using the symbol both between digits and at the end of a number and one might be tempted to believe that at least zero as an empty place holder had firmly arrived. This, however, is far from what happened. Only a few exceptional astronomers used the notation and it would fall out of use several more times before finally establishing itself. The idea of the zero place (certainly not thought of as a number by Ptolemy who still considered it as a sort of punctuation mark) makes its next appearance in Indian mathematics.

The scene now moves to India where it is fair to say the numerals and number system was born which have evolved into the highly sophisticated ones we use today. Of course that is not to say that the Indian system did not owe something to earlier systems and many historians of mathematics believe that the Indian use of zero evolved from its use by Greek astronomers. As well as some historians who seem to want to play down the contribution of the Indians in a most unreasonable way, there are also those who make claims about the Indian invention of zero which seem to go far too far. For example Mukherjee in [6] claims:-

... the mathematical conception of zero ... was also present in the spiritual form from 17 000 years back in India.

What is certain is that by around 650AD the use of zero as a number came into Indian mathematics. The Indians also used a place-value system and zero was used to denote an empty place. In fact there is evidence of an empty place holder in positional numbers from as early as 200AD in India but some historians dismiss these as later forgeries. Let us examine this latter use first since it continues the development described above.

In around 500AD Aryabhata devised a number system which has no zero yet was a positional system. He used the word "kha" for position and it would be used later as the name for zero. There is evidence that a dot had been used in earlier Indian manuscripts to denote an empty place in positional notation. It is interesting that the same documents sometimes also used a dot to denote an unknown where we might use x. Later Indian mathematicians had names for zero in positional numbers yet had no symbol for it. The first record of the Indian use of zero which is dated and agreed by all to be genuine was written in 876.

We have an inscription on a stone tablet which contains a date which translates to 876. The inscription concerns the town of Gwalior, 400 km south of Delhi, where they planted a garden 187 by 270 hastas which would produce enough flowers to allow 50 garlands per day to be given to the local temple. Both of the numbers 270 and 50 are denoted almost as they appear today although the 0 is smaller and slightly raised.

We now come to considering the first appearance of zero as a number. Let us first note that it is not in any sense a natural candidate for a number. From early times numbers are words which refer to collections of objects. Certainly the idea of number became more and more abstract and this abstraction then makes possible the consideration of zero and negative numbers which do not arise as properties of collections of objects. Of course the problem which arises when one tries to consider zero and negatives as numbers is how they interact in regard to the operations of arithmetic, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. In three important books the Indian mathematicians Brahmagupta, Mahavira and Bhaskara tried to answer these questions.

Brahmagupta attempted to give the rules for arithmetic involving zero and negative numbers in the seventh century. He explained that given a number then if you subtract it from itself you obtain zero. He gave the following rules for addition which involve zero:-

The sum of zero and a negative number is negative, the sum of a positive number and zero is positive, the sum of zero and zero is zero.

Subtraction is a little harder:-

A negative number subtracted from zero is positive, a positive number subtracted from zero is negative, zero subtracted from a negative number is negative, zero subtracted from a positive number is positive, zero subtracted from zero is zero.

Brahmagupta then says that any number when multiplied by zero is zero but struggles when it comes to division:-

A positive or negative number when divided by zero is a fraction with the zero as denominator. Zero divided by a negative or positive number is either zero or is expressed as a fraction with zero as numerator and the finite quantity as denominator. Zero divided by zero is zero.

Really Brahmagupta is saying very little when he suggests that n divided by zero is n/0. Clearly he is struggling here. He is certainly wrong when he then claims that zero divided by zero is zero. However it is a brilliant attempt from the first person that we know who tried to extend arithmetic to negative numbers and zero.

In 830, around 200 years after Brahmagupta wrote his masterpiece, Mahavira wrote Ganita Sara Samgraha which was designed as an updating of Brahmagupta's book. He correctly states that:-

... a number multiplied by zero is zero, and a number remains the same when zero is subtracted from it.

However his attempts to improve on Brahmagupta's statements on dividing by zero seem to lead him into error. He writes:-

A number remains unchanged when divided by zero.

Since this is clearly incorrect my use of the words "seem to lead him into error" might be seen as confusing. The reason for this phrase is that some commentators on Mahavira have tried to find excuses for his incorrect statement.

Bhaskara wrote over 500 years after Brahmagupta. Despite the passage of time he is still struggling to explain division by zero. He writes:-

A quantity divided by zero becomes a fraction the denominator of which is zero. This fraction is termed an infinite quantity. In this quantity consisting of that which has zero for its divisor, there is no alteration, though many may be inserted or extracted; as no change takes place in the infinite and immutable God when worlds are created or destroyed, though numerous orders of beings are absorbed or put forth.

So Bhaskara tried to solve the problem by writing n/0 = ∞. At first sight we might be tempted to believe that Bhaskara has it correct, but of course he does not. If this were true then 0 times ∞ must be equal to every number n, so all numbers are equal. The Indian mathematicians could not bring themselves to the point of admitting that one could not divide by zero. Bhaskara did correctly state other properties of zero, however, such as 02 = 0, and √0 = 0.

Perhaps we should note at this point that there was another civilisation which developed a place-value number system with a zero. This was the Maya people who lived in central America, occupying the area which today is southern Mexico, Guatemala, and northern Belize. This was an old civilisation but flourished particularly between 250 and 900. We know that by 665 they used a place-value number system to base 20 with a symbol for zero. However their use of zero goes back further than this and was in use before they introduced the place-valued number system. This is a remarkable achievement but sadly did not influence other peoples.

You can see a separate article about Mayan mathematics.

The brilliant work of the Indian mathematicians was transmitted to the Islamic and Arabic mathematicians further west. It came at an early stage for al-Khwarizmi wrote Al'Khwarizmi on the Hindu Art of Reckoning which describes the Indian place-value system of numerals based on 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0. This work was the first in what is now Iraq to use zero as a place holder in positional base notation. Ibn Ezra, in the 12th century, wrote three treatises on numbers which helped to bring the Indian symbols and ideas of decimal fractions to the attention of some of the learned people in Europe. The Book of the Number describes the decimal system for integers with place values from left to right. In this work ibn Ezra uses zero which he calls galgal (meaning wheel or circle). Slightly later in the 12th century al-Samawal was writing:-

If we subtract a positive number from zero the same negative number remains. ... if we subtract a negative number from zero the same positive number remains.

The Indian ideas spread east to China as well as west to the Islamic countries. In 1247 the Chinese mathematician Ch'in Chiu-Shao wrote Mathematical treatise in nine sections which uses the symbol O for zero. A little later, in 1303, Zhu Shijie wrote Jade mirror of the four elements which again uses the symbol O for zero.

Fibonacci was one of the main people to bring these new ideas about the number system to Europe. As the authors of [12] write:-

An important link between the Hindu-Arabic number system and the European mathematics is the Italian mathematician Fibonacci.

In Liber Abaci he described the nine Indian symbols together with the sign 0 for Europeans in around 1200 but it was not widely used for a long time after that. It is significant that Fibonacci is not bold enough to treat 0 in the same way as the other numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 since he speaks of the "sign" zero while the other symbols he speaks of as numbers. Although clearly bringing the Indian numerals to Europe was of major importance we can see that in his treatment of zero he did not reach the sophistication of the Indians Brahmagupta, Mahavira and Bhaskara nor of the Arabic and Islamic mathematicians such as al-Samawal.

One might have thought that the progress of the number systems in general, and zero in particular, would have been steady from this time on. However, this was far from the case. Cardan solved cubic and quartic equations without using zero. He would have found his work in the 1500's so much easier if he had had a zero but it was not part of his mathematics. By the 1600's zero began to come into widespread use but still only after encountering a lot of resistance.

Of course there are still signs of the problems caused by zero. Recently many people throughout the world celebrated the new millennium on 1 January 2000. Of course they celebrated the passing of only 1999 years since when the calendar was set up no year zero was specified. Although one might forgive the original error, it is a little surprising that most people seemed unable to understand why the third millennium and the 21st century begin on 1 January 2001. Zero is still causing problems!

History of Ganit (Mathematics)

History of Ganit (Mathematics)


Introduction
Ganit (Mathematics) has been considered a very important subject since ancient times. We find very elaborate proof of this in Vedah (which were compiled around 6000 BC). The concept of division, addition et-cetera was used even that time. Concepts of zero and infinite were there. We also find roots of algebra in Vedah. When Indian Beez Ganit reached Arab, they called it Algebra. Algebra was name of the Arabic book that described Indian concepts. This knowledge reached to Europe from there. And thus ancient Indian Beez Ganit is currently referred to as Algebra.

The book Vedang jyotish (written 1000 BC) has mentioned the importance of Ganit as follows-


Meaning: Just as branches of a peacock and jewel-stone of a snake are placed at the highest place of body (forehead), similarly position of Ganit is highest in all the branches of Vedah and Shastras



Famous Jain Mathematician Mahaviracharya has said the following-


Meaning: What is the use of much speaking. Whatever object exists in this moving and nonmoving world, can not be understood without the base of Ganit(Mathematics).



This fact was well known to intellectuals of India that is why they gave special importance to the development of Mathematics, right from the beginning. When this knowledge was negligible in Arab and Europe, India had acquired great achievements.

People from Arab and other countries used to travel to India for commerce. While doing commerce, side by side, they also learnt easy to use calculation methods of India. Through them this knowledge reached to Europe. From time to time many inquisitive foreigners visited India and they delivered this matchless knowledge to their countries. This will not be exaggeration to say that till 12th century India was the World Guru in the area of Mathematics.

The auspicious beginning on Indian Mathematics is in Aadi Granth (ancient/eternal book) Rigved. The history of Indian Mathematics can be divided into 5 parts, as following.

1) Ancient Time (Before 500 BC)

a)Vedic Time (1000 BC-At least 6000 BC)
a)Later Vedic Time (1000 BC-500BC)

2) Pre Middle Time (500 BC- 400 AD)

3) Middle Time or Golden Age (400 AD - 1200 AD)

4) Later Middle Time (1200 AD - 1800 AD)

5) Current Time (After 1800 AD)




1) Ancient Time (Before 500 BC)
Ancient time is very important in the history of Indian Mathematics. In this time different branches of Mathematics, such as Numerical Mathematics; Algebra; Geometrical Mathematics, were properly and strongly established.

There are two main divisions in Ancient Time. Numerical Mathematics developed in Vedic Time and Geometrical Mathematics developed in Later Vedic Time.


1a) Vedic Time (1000 BC-At least 6000 BC)
Numerals and decimals are cleanly mentioned in Vedah (Compiled at lease 6000 BC). There is a Richa in Veda, which says the following-


In the above Richa , Dwadash (12), Treeni (2), Trishat (300) numerals have been used. This indicates the use of writing numerals based on 10.



In this age the discovery of ZERO and "10th place value method"(writing number based on 10) is great contribution to world by India in the arena of Mathematics.

If "zero" and "10 based numbers" were not discovered, it would not have been possible today to write big numbers.

The great scholar of America Dr. G. B. Halsteed has also praised this. Shlegal has also accepted that this is the second greatest achievement of human race after the discovery of Alphabets.

This is not known for certain that who invented "zero" and when. But it has been in use right from the "vedic" time. The importance of "zero" and "10th place value method" is manifested by their wide spread use in today's world. This discovery is the one that has helped science to reach its current status.

In the second section of earlier portion of Narad Vishnu Puran (written by Ved Vyas) describes "mathematics" in the context of Triskandh Jyotish. In that numbers have been described which are ten times of each other, in a sequence (10 to the power n). Not only that in this book, different methods of "mathematics" like Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Addition, Fraction, Square, Square root, Cube root et-cetera have been elaborately discussed. Problems based on these have also been solved.

This proves at that time various mathematical methods were not in concept stage, rather those were getting used in a methodical and expanded manner.

"10th place value method" dispersed from India to Arab. From there it got transferred to Western countries. This is the reason that digits from 1-9 are called "hindsa" by the people of Arab. In western countries 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 are called Hindu-Arabic Numerals.


1b) Later Vedic Time (1000 BC - 500 BC)

1b.1) Shulv and Vedang Jyotish Time
Vedi was very important while performing rituals. On the top of "Vedi" different type of geomit(geometry: as you notice this word is derived from a Sanskrit word)) were made. To measure those geometry properly, "geometrical mathematics" was developed. That knowledge was available in form of Shulv Sutras (Shulv Formulae). Shulv means rope. This rope was used in measuring geometry while making vedis.

In that time we had three great formulators-Baudhayan, Aapstamb and Pratyayan. Apart from them Manav, Matrayan, Varah and Bandhul are also famous mathematician of that time.

The following excerpt from "Baudhayan Sulv Sutra (1000 BC)" is today known as Paithogorus Theorem (amazing, isn't it ?)


In the above formula , the following has been said. In a Deerghchatursh (Rectangle) the Chetra (Square) of Rajju (hypotenuse) is equal to sum of squares of Parshvamani (base) and Triyangmani (perpendicular).



In the same book Baudhayan has discussed the method of making a square equal to difference of two squares. He has also described method of making a square shape equal to addition of two squares. He has also mentioned the formula to find the value (upto five decimal places) of a root (square root, cube root ...) a number, according to that the square root of 2 can be found as below-



While Geometric Mathematics was developed for making Vedi in Yagya , in parallel there was a need to find appropriate timing for Yagya. This need led to development of Geotish Shastra (Astrology) In Geotish Shastra (Astrology) they calculated time, position and motion of stars. By reading the book Vedanga Jyotish (At least 1000 BC) we find that astrologers knew about addition, multiplication, subtraction et-cetera. For example please read below-

Meaning: Multiply the date by 11, then add to it the "Bhansh" of "Parv" and then divide it by "Nakshatra" number. In this way the "Nakshtra" of date should be told.



1b.2) Surya Pragyapti Time
We find elaborated description of Mathematics in the Jain literature. In fact the clarity and elaboration by which Mathematics is described in Jain literature, indicates the tendency of Jain philosophy to convey the knowledge to the language and level of common people (This is in deviation to the style of Veda which told the facts indirectly).

Surya Pragyapti and Chandra Pragyapti (At least 500 BC) are two famous scriptures of Jain branch of Ancient India. These describe the use of Mathematics.

Deergha Vritt (ellipse) is clearly described in the book titled Surya Pragyapti. "Deergha Vritt" means the outer circle (Vritta) on a rectangle(Deergha), that was also known as Parimandal.
This is clear that Indians had discovered this at least 150 years before Minmax (150 BC). As this history was not known to the West so they consider Minmax as the first time founder of ellipse.


This is worth mentioning that in the book Bhagvati Sutra (Before 300 BC) the word Parimandal has been used for Deergha Vritt (ellipse). It has been described to have two types 1) Pratarparimandal and 2)Ghanpratarparimandal.

Jain Aacharyas contributed a lot in the development of Mathematics. These gurus have described different branches of mathematics in a very through and interesting manner. They are examples too.

They have described fractions, algebraic equations, series, set theory, logarithm, and exponents .... Under the set theory they have described with examples- finite, infinite, single sets. For logarithm they have used terms like Ardh Aached , Trik Aached, Chatur Aached. These terms mean log base 2, log base 3 and log base 4 respectively. Well before Joan Napier (1550-1617 AD), logarithm had been invented and used in India which is a universal truth.

Buddha literature has also given due importance to Mathematics. They have divided Mathematics under two categories- 1) Garna (Simple Mathematics) and 2)Sankhyan (Higher Mathematics). They have described numbers under three categories-1)Sankheya(countable),2)Asankheya(uncountable) and 3)Anant(infinite). Which clearly indicates that Indian Intellectuals knew "infinite number" very well.




2) Pre Middle Time (500 BC- 400 AD)
This is unfortunate that except for the few pages of the books Vaychali Ganit, Surya Siddhanta and Ganita Anoyog of this time, rest of the writings of this time are lost. From the remainder pages of this time and the literature of Aryabhatt, Brahamgupt et-cetera of Middle Time, we can conclude that in this time too Mathematics underwent sufficient development.

Sathanang Sutra, Bhagvati Sutra and Anoyogdwar Sutra are famous books of this time. Apart from these the book titled Tatvarthaadigyam Sutra Bhashya of Jain philosopher Omaswati (135 BC) and the book titled Tiloyapannati of Aacharya (Guru) Yativrisham (176 BC) are famous writings of this time.

The book titled Vaychali Ganit discusses in detail the following -the basic calculations of mathematics, the numbers based on 10, fraction, square, cube, rule of false position, interest methods, questions on purchase and sale... The book has given the answers of the problems and also described testing methods. Vachali Ganit is a proof of the fact that even at that time (300 BC) India was using various methods of the current Numerical Mathematics. This is noticeable that this book is the only written Hindu Ganit book of this time that was found as a few survived pages in village Vaychat Gram (Peshawar) in 1000 AD.

Sathanang Sutra has mentioned five types of infinite and Anoyogdwar Sutra has mentioned four types of Pramaan (Measure). This Granth(book) has also described permutations and combinations which are termed as Bhang and Vikalp .

This is worth mentioning that in the book Bhagvati Sutra describes the following. From n types taking 1-1,2-2 types together the combinations such made are termed as Akak, Dwik Sanyog and the value of such combinations is mentioned as n(n-1)/2 which is used even today.

Roots of the Modern Trignometry lie in the book titled Surya Siddhanta . It mentions Zya(Sine), Otkram Zya(Versesine), and Kotizya(Cosine). Please remember that the same word (Zia) changed to "Jaib" in Arab. The translation of Jaib in Latin was done as "Sinus". And this "Sinus" became "Sine" later on.

This is worth mentioning that Trikonmiti word is pure Indian and with the time it changed to Trignometry. Indians used Trignometry in deciding the position , motion et-cetera of the spatial planets.

In this time the expansion of Beezganit (When this knowledge reached Arab from India it became Algebra)was revolutionary. The roots of Modern Algebra lie in the book Vaychali Ganit. In this book while describing Isht KarmaIsht Karm "Rule of False" as the origin of expansion of Algebra. Thus Algebra is also gifted to world by Indians

Although almost all ancient countries used quantities of unknown values and using them found the result of Numerical Mathematics. However the the expansion of Beez Ganit (Now known as Alzebra) became possible when right denotion method was developed. The glory for this goes to Indians who for the first time used Sanskrit Alphabet to denote unknown quantities. Infact expansion of Beez Ganit (Now known as Alzebra) became possible when Indians realized that all the calculations of Numerical Mathematics could be done by notations. And that +, - these signs can be used with those notations.

Indians developed rules of addition, subtraction, multiplication with these signs (+,-,x). In this context we can not forget the contribution of great mathematician Brahmgupt (628 AD). He said-

The multiplication of a positive number with a negative number comes out to be a negative number and multiplication of a positive number with a positive number comes out to be a positive number.
He further told:
When a positive number is divided by a positive number the result is a positive number and when a positive number is divided by a negative number or a negative number is divided by a positive number the result is a negative number.

Indians used notations for squares, cube and other exponents of numbers. Those notations are used even today in the mathematics. They gave shape to Beezganit Samikaran(Algebraic Equations). They made rules for transferring the quantities from left to right or right to left in an equation. Right from the 5th century AD, Indians majorly used aforementioned rules.

In the book titled Anoyogdwar Sutra has described some rules of exponents in Beez Ganit (Later the name Algebra became more popular). Please find below a few examples.




Thus it proves that Beez Ganit (Later the name Algebra became more popular) was well expanded by the mathematicians of Pre-middle Time. This was more expanded in the Middle Time.

It is without doubt that like Aank Ganit (Numerical Mathematics) Beez Ganit (Later the name Algebra became more popular) reached Arab from India. Arab mathematician Al-Khowarizmi (780-850 AD) has described topics based on Indian Beez Ganit in his book titled "Algebr". And when it reached Europe it was called Algebra.


As for as other countries are concerned we find that in the golden time of Greece Mathematics there was no sign of Algebra with respect to modern concept of Algebra. In classical period Greece people had ability to solve tough questions of Beez Ganit (Later the name Algebra became more popular) but there all solutions were based on Geometrical Mathematics. For the first time in Greece world, the concept of Beez Ganit (Later the name Algebra became more popular) is described in a books of Diofantus (275 AD). By that time Indians were far ahead. This is worth noting that the shape and form of current Beez Ganit (Later the name Algebra became more popular) is originally Indian.



3) Middle Time or Golden Age 400 AD- 1200 AD)
This period is called golden age of Indian Mathematics. In this time great mathematicians like Aryabhatt, Brahmgupt, Mahaveeracharya, Bhaskaracharya who gave a broad and clear shape to almost all the branches of mathematics which we are using today. The principles and methods which are in form of Sutra(formulae) in Vedas were brought forward with their full potential, in front of the common masses. To respect this time India gave the name "Aryabhatt" to its first space satellite.

The following is the description about great mathematicians and their creations.


Aryabhatt (First) (490 AD)
He was a resident of Patna in India. He has described, in a very crisp and concise manner, the important fundamental principles of Mathematics only in 332 Shlokas. His book is titled Aryabhattiya. In the first two sections of Aryabhattiya, Mathematics is described. In the last two sections of Aryabhattiya, Jyotish (Astrology) is described. In the first section of the book, he has described the method of denoting big decimal numbers by the alphabets.

In the second section of the book Aryabhattiya we find difficult questions from topics such as Numerical Mathematics, Geometrical Mathematics, Trignometry and Beezganit (Algebra). He also worked on indeterminate equations of Beezganit (Later in West it was called Algebra). He was the first to use Vyutkram Zia (Which was later known as Versesine in the West) in Trignometry. He calculated the value of pi correct upto four decimal places.


He was first to find that the sun is stationary and the earth revolves around it. 1100 years later, this fact was accepted by Coppernix of West in 16th century. Galileo was hanged for accepting this.


Bhaskar (First) (600 AD)
He did matchless work on Indeterminate equations. He expanded the work of Aryabhatt in his books titled Mahabhaskariya, Aryabhattiya Bhashya and Laghu Bhaskariya .


Brahmgupt (628 AD)
His famous work is his book titled Brahm-sfut. This book has 25 chapters. In two chapters of the book, he has elaborately described the mathematical principles and methods. He threw light on around 20 processes and behavior of Mathematics. He described the rules of the solving equations of Beezganit (Algebra). He also told the solution of indeterminate equations with two exponent. Later Ailer in 1764 AD and Langrez in 1768 described the same.

Brahmgupt told the method of calculating the volume of Prism and Cone. He also described how to sum a GP Series. He was the first to tell that when we divide any positive or negative number by zero it becomes infinite.


Mahaveeracharya (850 AD)
He wrote the book titled "Ganit Saar Sangraha". This book is on Numerical Mathematics. He has described the currently used method of calculating Least Common Multiple (LCM) of given numbers. The same method was used in Europe later in 1500 AD. He derived formulae to calculate the area of ellipse and quadrilateral inside a circle.


Shridharacharya (850 AD)
He wrote books titled "Nav Shatika", "Tri Shatika", "Pati Ganit". These books are on Numerical Mathematics. His books on Beez Ganit (Algebra) are lost now, but his method of solving quadratic equations is still used. This is method is also called "Shridharacharya Niyam". The great thing is that currently we use the same formula as told by him. His book titled "Pati Ganit" has been translated into Arabic by the name "Hisabul Tarapt".


Aryabhatta Second (950 AD)
He wrote a book titled Maha Siddhanta. This book discusses Numerical Mathematics (Ank Ganit) and Algebra. It describes the method of solving algebraic indeterminate equations of first order. He was the first to calculate the surface area of a sphere. He used the value of pi as 22/7.


Shripati Mishra (1039 AD)
He wrote the books titled Siddhanta Shekhar and Ganit Tilak. He worked mainly on permutations and combinations. Only first section of his book Ganit Tilak is available.


Nemichandra Siddhanta Chakravati (1100 AD)
His famous book is titled Gome-mat Saar. It has two sections. The first section is Karma Kaand and the second section is titled Jeev Kaand. He worked on Set Theory. He described universal sets, all types of mapping, Well Ordering Theorems et-cetera.One to One Mapping was used by Gailileo and George Kanter(1845-1918) after many centuries.


Bhaskaracharya Second (1114 AD)
He has written excellent books namely Siddhanta Shiromani,Leelavati Beezganitam,Gola Addhaya,Griha Ganitam and Karan Kautoohal. He gave final touch to Numerical Mathematics, Beez Ganit (Algebra), and Trikonmiti (Trignometry).

The concepts which were in the form of formulae in Vedah. He has also described 20 methods and 8 behaviors of Brahamgupt.

Great Hankal has praised a lot Bhaskaracharya's Chakrawaat Method of solving indeterminate equations of Beezganit (Algebra). This Bhaskaracharya's Chakrawaat Method was used by Ferment in 1667 to solve indeterminate equations.

In his book Siddhanta Shiromani, he has described in length the concepts of Trignometry. He has described Sine, Cosine, Versesine,... Infinitesimal Calculus and Integration. He wrote that earth has gravitational force.




3) Later Middle Period (1200 AD- 1800 AD)
Not much original work was done after Bhaskaracharya Second. Comments on ancient texts are the main contribution of this period.

In his book (1500 AD), the mathematician Neel Kantha of Kerla has given the following formula to calculate Sine r -



The same formula is given in the Malyalam book Mookti Bhaas. These days this series is called Greygeries Series. The following is a descriptions of the famous mathematicians of this period.


Narayan Pundit (1356 AD)
He wrote the book titled Ganit Kaumidi. This book deals with Permutations and Combinations, Partition of Numbers, Magic Squares.


Neel Kanta (1587 AD)
He wrote the book titled Tagikani Kanti. This book deals with Zeotish Ganit(Astrological Mathematics).


Kamalakar (1608 AD)
He wrote a book titled Siddhanta Tatwa Viveka.


Samraat Jagannath (1731 AD)
He wrote two books titled Samraat Siddhanta and Rekha Ganit (Line Mathematics)

Apart from the above-mentioned mathematicians we have a few more worth mentioning mathematicians. From Kerla we have Madhav (1350-1410 AD). Jyeshta Deva (1500-1610 AD) wrote a book titled Ukti Bhasha. Shankar Paarshav (1500-1560 AD) wrote a book titled Kriya Kramkari.




3) Current Period (1800 AD- Current)
Please find below a list of famous mathematicians and their writings.



Nrisingh Bapudev Shastri (1831 AD)
He wrote books on Geometrical Mathematics, Numerical Mathematics and Trignometry.


Sudhakar Dwivedi (1831 AD)
He wrote books titled Deergha Vritta Lakshan(which means characteristics of ellipse), Goleeya Rekha Ganit(which means sphere line mathematics),Samikaran Meemansa(which means analysis of equations) and Chalan Kalan.


Ramanujam (1889 AD)
Ramanujam is a modern mathematics scholar. He followed the vedic style of writing mathematical concepts in terms of formulae and then proving it. His intellectuality is proved by the fact it took all mettle of current mathematicians to prove a few out of his total 50 theorems.


Swami Bharti Krishnateerthaji Maharaj (1884-1960 AD)
He wrote the book titled Vedic Ganit.
www.piyushdadriwalamaths.co.in

An overview of Indian mathematics

An overview of Indian mathematics

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Ancient Indian Mathematics index History Topics Index


Version for printing
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It is without doubt that mathematics today owes a huge debt to the outstanding contributions made by Indian mathematicians over many hundreds of years. What is quite surprising is that there has been a reluctance to recognise this and one has to conclude that many famous historians of mathematics found what they expected to find, or perhaps even what they hoped to find, rather than to realise what was so clear in front of them.

We shall examine the contributions of Indian mathematics in this article, but before looking at this contribution in more detail we should say clearly that the "huge debt" is the beautiful number system invented by the Indians on which much of mathematical development has rested. Laplace put this with great clarity:-

The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions. the importance of this invention is more readily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest men of Antiquity, Archimedes and Apollonius.

We shall look briefly at the Indian development of the place-value decimal system of numbers later in this article and in somewhat more detail in the separate article Indian numerals. First, however, we go back to the first evidence of mathematics developing in India.

Histories of Indian mathematics used to begin by describing the geometry contained in the Sulbasutras but research into the history of Indian mathematics has shown that the essentials of this geometry were older being contained in the altar constructions described in the Vedic mythology text the Shatapatha Brahmana and the Taittiriya Samhita. Also it has been shown that the study of mathematical astronomy in India goes back to at least the third millennium BC and mathematics and geometry must have existed to support this study in these ancient times.

The first mathematics which we shall describe in this article developed in the Indus valley. The earliest known urban Indian culture was first identified in 1921 at Harappa in the Punjab and then, one year later, at Mohenjo-daro, near the Indus River in the Sindh. Both these sites are now in Pakistan but this is still covered by our term "Indian mathematics" which, in this article, refers to mathematics developed in the Indian subcontinent. The Indus civilisation (or Harappan civilisation as it is sometimes known) was based in these two cities and also in over a hundred small towns and villages. It was a civilisation which began around 2500 BC and survived until 1700 BC or later. The people were literate and used a written script containing around 500 characters which some have claimed to have deciphered but, being far from clear that this is the case, much research remains to be done before a full appreciation of the mathematical achievements of this ancient civilisation can be fully assessed.

We often think of Egyptians and Babylonians as being the height of civilisation and of mathematical skills around the period of the Indus civilisation, yet V G Childe in New Light on the Most Ancient East (1952) wrote:-

India confronts Egypt and Babylonia by the 3rd millennium with a thoroughly individual and independent civilisation of her own, technically the peer of the rest. And plainly it is deeply rooted in Indian soil. The Indus civilisation represents a very perfect adjustment of human life to a specific environment. And it has endured; it is already specifically Indian and forms the basis of modern Indian culture.

We do know that the Harappans had adopted a uniform system of weights and measures. An analysis of the weights discovered suggests that they belong to two series both being decimal in nature with each decimal number multiplied and divided by two, giving for the main series ratios of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500. Several scales for the measurement of length were also discovered during excavations. One was a decimal scale based on a unit of measurement of 1.32 inches (3.35 centimetres) which has been called the "Indus inch". Of course ten units is then 13.2 inches which is quite believable as the measure of a "foot". A similar measure based on the length of a foot is present in other parts of Asia and beyond. Another scale was discovered when a bronze rod was found which was marked in lengths of 0.367 inches. It is certainly surprising the accuracy with which these scales are marked. Now 100 units of this measure is 36.7 inches which is the measure of a stride. Measurements of the ruins of the buildings which have been excavated show that these units of length were accurately used by the Harappans in construction.

It is unclear exactly what caused the decline in the Harappan civilisation. Historians have suggested four possible causes: a change in climatic patterns and a consequent agricultural crisis; a climatic disaster such flooding or severe drought; disease spread by epidemic; or the invasion of Indo-Aryans peoples from the north. The favourite theory used to be the last of the four, but recent opinions favour one of the first three. What is certainly true is that eventually the Indo-Aryans peoples from the north did spread over the region. This brings us to the earliest literary record of Indian culture, the Vedas which were composed in Vedic Sanskrit, between 1500 BC and 800 BC. At first these texts, consisting of hymns, spells, and ritual observations, were transmitted orally. Later the texts became written works for use of those practicing the Vedic religion.

The next mathematics of importance on the Indian subcontinent was associated with these religious texts. It consisted of the Sulbasutras which were appendices to the Vedas giving rules for constructing altars. They contained quite an amount of geometrical knowledge, but the mathematics was being developed, not for its own sake, but purely for practical religious purposes. The mathematics contained in the these texts is studied in some detail in the separate article on the Sulbasutras.

The main Sulbasutras were composed by Baudhayana (about 800 BC), Manava (about 750 BC), Apastamba (about 600 BC), and Katyayana (about 200 BC). These men were both priests and scholars but they were not mathematicians in the modern sense. Although we have no information on these men other than the texts they wrote, we have included them in our biographies of mathematicians. There is another scholar, who again was not a mathematician in the usual sense, who lived around this period. That was Panini who achieved remarkable results in his studies of Sanskrit grammar. Now one might reasonably ask what Sanskrit grammar has to do with mathematics. It certainly has something to do with modern theoretical computer science, for a mathematician or computer scientist working with formal language theory will recognise just how modern some of Panini's ideas are.

Before the end of the period of the Sulbasutras, around the middle of the third century BC, the Brahmi numerals had begun to appear.




Here is one style of the Brahmi numerals..


These are the earliest numerals which, after a multitude of changes, eventually developed into the numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 used today. The development of numerals and place-valued number systems are studied in the article Indian numerals.

The Vedic religion with its sacrificial rites began to wane and other religions began to replace it. One of these was Jainism, a religion and philosophy which was founded in India around the 6th century BC. Although the period after the decline of the Vedic religion up to the time of Aryabhata I around 500 AD used to be considered as a dark period in Indian mathematics, recently it has been recognised as a time when many mathematical ideas were considered. In fact Aryabhata is now thought of as summarising the mathematical developments of the Jaina as well as beginning the next phase.

The main topics of Jaina mathematics in around 150 BC were: the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, quartic equations, and permutations and combinations. More surprisingly the Jaina developed a theory of the infinite containing different levels of infinity, a primitive understanding of indices, and some notion of logarithms to base 2. One of the difficult problems facing historians of mathematics is deciding on the date of the Bakhshali manuscript. If this is a work which is indeed from 400 AD, or at any rate a copy of a work which was originally written at this time, then our understanding of the achievements of Jaina mathematics will be greatly enhanced. While there is so much uncertainty over the date, a topic discussed fully in our article on the Bakhshali manuscript, then we should avoid rewriting the history of the Jaina period in the light of the mathematics contained in this remarkable document.

You can see a separate article about Jaina mathematics.

If the Vedic religion gave rise to a study of mathematics for constructing sacrificial altars, then it was Jaina cosmology which led to ideas of the infinite in Jaina mathematics. Later mathematical advances were often driven by the study of astronomy. Well perhaps it would be more accurate to say that astrology formed the driving force since it was that "science" which required accurate information about the planets and other heavenly bodies and so encouraged the development of mathematics. Religion too played a major role in astronomical investigations in India for accurate calendars had to be prepared to allow religious observances to occur at the correct times. Mathematics then was still an applied science in India for many centuries with mathematicians developing methods to solve practical problems.

Yavanesvara, in the second century AD, played an important role in popularising astrology when he translated a Greek astrology text dating from 120 BC. If he had made a literal translation it is doubtful whether it would have been of interest to more than a few academically minded people. He popularised the text, however, by resetting the whole work into Indian culture using Hindu images with the Indian caste system integrated into his text.

By about 500 AD the classical era of Indian mathematics began with the work of Aryabhata. His work was both a summary of Jaina mathematics and the beginning of new era for astronomy and mathematics. His ideas of astronomy were truly remarkable. He replaced the two demons Rahu, the Dhruva Rahu which causes the phases of the Moon and the Parva Rahu which causes an eclipse by covering the Moon or Sun or their light, with a modern theory of eclipses. He introduced trigonometry in order to make his astronomical calculations, based on the Greek epicycle theory, and he solved with integer solutions indeterminate equations which arose in astronomical theories.

Aryabhata headed a research centre for mathematics and astronomy at Kusumapura in the northeast of the Indian subcontinent. There a school studying his ideas grew up there but more than that, Aryabhata set the agenda for mathematical and astronomical research in India for many centuries to come. Another mathematical and astronomical centre was at Ujjain, also in the north of the Indian subcontinent, which grew up around the same time as Kusumapura. The most important of the mathematicians at this second centre was Varahamihira who also made important contributions to astronomy and trigonometry.

The main ideas of Jaina mathematics, particularly those relating to its cosmology with its passion for large finite numbers and infinite numbers, continued to flourish with scholars such as Yativrsabha. He was a contemporary of Varahamihira and of the slightly older Aryabhata. We should also note that the two schools at Kusumapura and Ujjain were involved in the continuing developments of the numerals and of place-valued number systems. The next figure of major importance at the Ujjain school was Brahmagupta near the beginning of the seventh century AD and he would make one of the most major contributions to the development of the numbers systems with his remarkable contributions on negative numbers and zero. It is a sobering thought that eight hundred years later European mathematics would be struggling to cope without the use of negative numbers and of zero.

These were certainly not Brahmagupta's only contributions to mathematics. Far from it for he made other major contributions in to the understanding of integer solutions to indeterminate equations and to interpolation formulas invented to aid the computation of sine tables.

The way that the contributions of these mathematicians were prompted by a study of methods in spherical astronomy is described in [25]:-

The Hindu astronomers did not possess a general method for solving problems in spherical astronomy, unlike the Greeks who systematically followed the method of Ptolemy, based on the well-known theorem of Menelaus. But, by means of suitable constructions within the armillary sphere, they were able to reduce many of their problems to comparison of similar right-angled plane triangles. In addition to this device, they sometimes also used the theory of quadratic equations, or applied the method of successive approximations. ... Of the methods taught by Aryabhata and demonstrated by his scholiast Bhaskara I, some are based on comparison of similar right-angled plane triangles, and others are derived from inference. Brahmagupta is probably the earliest astronomer to have employed the theory of quadratic equations and the method of successive approximations to solving problems in spherical astronomy.

Before continuing to describe the developments through the classical period we should explain the mechanisms which allowed mathematics to flourish in India during these centuries. The educational system in India at this time did not allow talented people with ability to receive training in mathematics or astronomy. Rather the whole educational system was family based. There were a number of families who carried the traditions of astrology, astronomy and mathematics forward by educating each new generation of the family in the skills which had been developed. We should also note that astronomy and mathematics developed on their own, separate for the development of other areas of knowledge.

Now a "mathematical family" would have a library which contained the writing of the previous generations. These writings would most likely be commentaries on earlier works such as the Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata. Many of the commentaries would be commentaries on commentaries on commentaries etc. Mathematicians often wrote commentaries on their own work. They would not be aiming to provide texts to be used in educating people outside the family, nor would they be looking for innovative ideas in astronomy. Again religion was the key, for astronomy was considered to be of divine origin and each family would remain faithful to the revelations of the subject as presented by their gods. To seek fundamental changes would be unthinkable for in asking others to accept such changes would be essentially asking them to change religious belief. Nor do these men appear to have made astronomical observations in any systematic way. Some of the texts do claim that the computed data presented in them is in better agreement with observation than that of their predecessors but, despite this, there does not seem to have been a major observational programme set up. Paramesvara in the late fourteenth century appears to be one of the first Indian mathematicians to make systematic observations over many years.

Mathematics however was in a different position. It was only a tool used for making astronomical calculations. If one could produce innovative mathematical ideas then one could exhibit the truths of astronomy more easily. The mathematics therefore had to lead to the same answers as had been reached before but it was certainly good if it could achieve these more easily or with greater clarity. This meant that despite mathematics only being used as a computational tool for astronomy, the brilliant Indian scholars were encouraged by their culture to put their genius into advances in this topic.

A contemporary of Brahmagupta who headed the research centre at Ujjain was Bhaskara I who led the Asmaka school. This school would have the study of the works of Aryabhata as their main concern and certainly Bhaskara was commentator on the mathematics of Aryabhata. More than 100 years after Bhaskara lived the astronomer Lalla, another commentator on Aryabhata.

The ninth century saw mathematical progress with scholars such as Govindasvami, Mahavira, Prthudakasvami, Sankara, and Sridhara. Some of these such as Govindasvami and Sankara were commentators on the text of Bhaskara I while Mahavira was famed for his updating of Brahmagupta's book. This period saw developments in sine tables, solving equations, algebraic notation, quadratics, indeterminate equations, and improvements to the number systems. The agenda was still basically that set by Aryabhata and the topics being developed those in his work.

The main mathematicians of the tenth century in India were Aryabhata II and Vijayanandi, both adding to the understanding of sine tables and trigonometry to support their astronomical calculations. In the eleventh century Sripati and Brahmadeva were major figures but perhaps the most outstanding of all was Bhaskara II in the twelfth century. He worked on algebra, number systems, and astronomy. He wrote beautiful texts illustrated with mathematical problems, some of which we present in his biography, and he provided the best summary of the mathematics and astronomy of the classical period.

Bhaskara II may be considered the high point of Indian mathematics but at one time this was all that was known [26]:-

For a long time Western scholars thought that Indians had not done any original work till the time of Bhaskara II. This is far from the truth. Nor has the growth of Indian mathematics stopped with Bhaskara II. Quite a few results of Indian mathematicians have been rediscovered by Europeans. For instance, the development of number theory, the theory of indeterminates infinite series expressions for sine, cosine and tangent, computational mathematics, etc.

Following Bhaskara II there was over 200 years before any other major contributions to mathematics were made on the Indian subcontinent. In fact for a long time it was thought that Bhaskara II represented the end of mathematical developments in the Indian subcontinent until modern times. However in the second half of the fourteenth century Mahendra Suri wrote the first Indian treatise on the astrolabe and Narayana wrote an important commentary on Bhaskara II, making important contributions to algebra and magic squares. The most remarkable contribution from this period, however, was by Madhava who invented Taylor series and rigorous mathematical analysis in some inspired contributions. Madhava was from Kerala and his work there inspired a school of followers such as Nilakantha and Jyesthadeva.

Some of the remarkable discoveries of the Kerala mathematicians are described in [26]. These include: a formula for the ecliptic; the Newton-Gauss interpolation formula; the formula for the sum of an infinite series; Lhuilier's formula for the circumradius of a cyclic quadrilateral. Of particular interest is the approximation to the value of π which was the first to be made using a series. Madhava's result which gave a series for π, translated into the language of modern mathematics, reads

π R = 4R - 4R/3 + 4R/5 - ...

This formula, as well as several others referred to above, were rediscovered by European mathematicians several centuries later. Madhava also gave other formulae for π, one of which leads to the approximation 3.14159265359.

The first person in modern times to realise that the mathematicians of Kerala had anticipated some of the results of the Europeans on the calculus by nearly 300 years was Charles Whish in 1835. Whish's publication in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland was essentially unnoticed by historians of mathematics. Only 100 years later in the 1940s did historians of mathematics look in detail at the works of Kerala's mathematicians and find that the remarkable claims made by Whish were essentially true. See for example [15]. Indeed the Kerala mathematicians had, as Whish wrote:-

... laid the foundation for a complete system of fluxions ...

and these works:-

... abound with fluxional forms and series to be found in no work of foreign countries.

There were other major advances in Kerala at around this time. Citrabhanu was a sixteenth century mathematicians from Kerala who gave integer solutions to twenty-one types of systems of two algebraic equations. These types are all the possible pairs of equations of the following seven forms:

x + y = a, x - y = b, xy = c, x2 + y2 = d, x2 - y2 = e, x3 + y3 = f, and x3 - y3 = g.

For each case, Citrabhanu gave an explanation and justification of his rule as well as an example. Some of his explanations are algebraic, while others are geometric. See [12] for more details.

Now we have presented the latter part of the history of Indian mathematics in an unlikely way. That there would be essentially no progress between the contributions of Bhaskara II and the innovations of Madhava, who was far more innovative than any other Indian mathematician producing a totally new perspective on mathematics, seems unlikely. Much more likely is that we are unaware of the contributions made over this 200 year period which must have provided the foundations on which Madhava built his theories.

Our understanding of the contributions of Indian mathematicians has changed markedly over the last few decades. Much more work needs to be done to further our understanding of the contributions of mathematicians whose work has sadly been lost, or perhaps even worse, been ignored. Indeed work is now being undertaken and we should soon have a better understanding of this important part of the history of mathematics.